#31-38 p235 #1-10 p258, unit 3

31. a) Propane- C3H8
b) Pentane- C5H12

32. Ane refers to the fact that hexane is an alkane.

33. Yes, they all have the same amount of carbon atoms which is 6 and 12 hydrogen atoms.

34. See Drawing

35. Butane

36. A linear chain and a zigzag chain have different structures; however, they have the same properties and amount of hydrocarbons making them isomers.

37. a) see drawings
b) the branched-chain molecule

38. a) A short straight chain would have a lower boiling point because there is less carbon to evaporate than a longer straight chain.
b) a short branched chain would have the lower boiling point because it again has less carbon bonds to break than the longer branched chain.
c) a short branched chain would have a lower boiling point because it has less carbon ,olecules to break down rather than a long straight chain which would have a lot of carbon bonds.
_________________________________________

1. Petroleum can be considered buried sunshine because before the the petroleum was buried it got its energy from the solar radiation transferred to either a plant or animal.

2. a) Potential energy is energy of position or condition; a piece of paper on the edge of a desk.
b) Kinetic energy is energy related to motion; a moving car.

3. In a chemical reaction the energy from the reactant side is used to break apart the original chemical bonds and form new ones with more or less energy with the product.

4. Butane, because it possesses more carbon and hydrogen atoms giving it the ability to hold more energy.

5. a) Potential energy
b) Potential energy
c) Kinetic energy
d) Potential energy
e) Kinetic energy

6. Chemical bonds need energy to break so that when they reconstruct new chemical bonds energy can be used.

7. a) exothermic-more energy is produced than is started with
b) endothermic-more energy was used than produced
c) endothermic-the candy bar provides less energy than it took to digest it

8. There is less energy stored in the reactants than is produced causing the heat energy form the lit candle.

9. See drawing

10. Energy is neither created nor destroyed in any mechanical, physical, or chemical processes.

Drops to drink

Singapore, a country with an extremely large amount of yearly rainfall, and a population of over 7000 people per square kilometer, is won of the most densely populated countries. Surprisingly though, water shortages have been plaguing the 5 million people living there. As we learned earlier in the summer, desalinization of water is a costly and slow process; however, the Singaporean government in collaboration with Siemens, a German engineering conglomerate have dedicated their time and money to making the process cheaper and efficient. Today, they claim to have created a method in Singapore which can "transform seawater into drinking water using less than half the energy required by the most efficient previous method." Most Ocean water starts out with around 3.5% salt and must be cut down to around 0.5% or less salt for human consumption. Usually the process of desalinization should take about 10 kilowatt-hours (kWh) of energy per cubic meter of seawater processed. This energy is used to heat the brine and partially evaporate the substance leaving you with newly condensed water vapor. Another process could use reverse osmosis, which utilizes special membrane to act as a sieve, passing on the water and filtering out the ions such as sodium chloride from the water. Reverse osmosis uses 4kWh per cubic meter of water to generate the pressure needed to maintain the sieve. The new system designed by Siemens only uses 1.8kWh per cubic meter and plans on lowering this energy even more to 1.5kWh. The process is called electrodialysis and works by utilizing a different membrane than reverse osmosis which actually passes the ions through membranes instead of water. Half pass positive ions and the other passes negatively charged ions. They alternate per channel so that when two electrodes flanking the system of each channel can pull the positively charged ions like in sodium and the other can pull the negatively charged ions like chloride. The result is a brine of sodium chloride which rises and is thrown away, while the water continues to go on to the same process a couple more times. By the end of the processes the water will have less than 1% salt concentration. This water is still not potable and must be employed an ion-exchange resin to lower the concentration to the drinkable amount of .5%. A full-scale plant in Singapore to produce water is being constructed now and will be finished in 2013.

http://www.economist.com/blogs/babbage/2011/07/desalination

Ice Cream Sandwiches

yummy yummy in my tummy
yummy yummy in my tummy
yummy yummy in my tummy
yummy yummy in my tummy
yummy yummy in my tummy
yummy yummy in my tummy
yummy yummy in my tummy
yummy yummy in my tummy

the advantages of taking summer chemistry

Taking Summer School Chemistry has been one of the most rewarding learning experiences yet. I can honestly say that in this class we learned the same amount of information (if not more), than the school year students learn. We got individual attention and were allowed extra class time for our questions to be answered. We could also help each other in class and get helped by other classmates. Through all of this extra careful learning time, I personally was able to fully understand the periodic table the best. I can understand the way families, groups, periods, atomic number, atomic mass, and element symbols work. I can also determine many valence electron amounts from the periodic table and ions. Once I understood that I could do chemical equations and balance them, I can also draw lewis dot structure covalent bond diagrams, and I can identify reduction and oxidation. Overall I have learned a vast amount of information in a short amount of time and absorbed it all. I will go onto physics in summer school next year just because I had such a great experience this year in chemistry.

3SAS #1-30 Except #’s 2, 4, 9, 14, 24, 25 p233

1. Hydrocarbons are molecular compounds that only contain atoms of hydrogen and carbon.

3. Petroleum is such a valuable resource because it is nonrenewable and is extremely versatile from energy to manufactured products.

5. Crude oil is what is pumped form underground, but it cannot be used for anything until it is put in a furnace and converted into fractions of petroleum.

6. a)2,621.74 10^3 Barrels per day
b) 21,212.26 10^3 Barrels per day

7. Diesel fuel oil, Gas Oil, Kerosene, Liquified petroleum gas

8. a)CDs, clothing, prescription drugs, and water bottles
b) Aluminum can replace CDs, and water bottles; renewable bio-plastics can be used to replace petroleum plastic in prescription drugs as well.

10. a) Middle East
b) Western Europe

11. a) United States of America
b) Middle East

12. In petroleum fractioning the the oil with the most density and highest boiling point is on the bottom and the top is the lowest boiling point with the least dense oil.

13. Acetone and Water would be the easiest to separate from one another because their boiling points have such a vast difference. If heated to 56 degrees C the acetone would evaporate and leave the water behind.

15.

16. Fractional distillation uses a furnace and separates different versions of oil into fractions in a tower.

17. light: Kerosene, aviation gasoline, petrochemicals
intermediate: gas oil, heavy furnace oil, diesel fuel oil
heavy: lubricating oil and grease, heavy oils and wax, cracking stock
residue: petroleum jelly, road oils and asphalt, petroleum coke

18. The bottom of the distillation tower would contain the oil with the highest boiling point because the lowest boiling point oil would evaporate and go to the top of the tower first and the furnace heated up the oil the last of the oil to evaporate would be the oil with the highest boiling point, leaving it at the bottom of the tower.

19. You could as another nonpolar substance with the oil to cause a reaction.

20. CH4, C5H12, C5H14, C8H18; the more carbon there is the higher intermolecular attraction occurs, and then an increased boiling point occurs.

21. A covalent bond is the charing of two or more valence electrons between two atoms which allows both atoms to fill their outer shells completely.

22. Elements with full valence shells of 8 electrons do not form covalent bonds because they are noble gases and are chemically inert.

23. In a covalent bond both atoms share the 2 electrons contained in the covalent bond. They both use one another's electron to complete their shells.

26. a) A structural formula can help show both the structure, the isomer, and the boiling point of a hydrocarbon or any other bonded elements unlike a molecular formula.
b) A structural formula is 2 dimensional while an actual molecule is obviously 3 dimensional.

27. a) See Drawing
b) See drawing

28. Carbon atoms only show 4 dots in the Lewis dot structure because the other 2 dots are represented in the first inner shell.

29. a) C9H20 b) C16H34 c) C10H22 d) C18H38

30. a) 128 grams b) 226 grams c) 142 grams d) 256 grams

Unit 4 B.3 #1-4 p.344

1. Human exposure to ultraviolet radiation such as UV-C can cause skin cell damage and skin cancer while UV-B and UV-A cause sunburns. Infrared radiation is mostly heat energy and has no direct harm to human life.

2. Visible solar radiation kickstarts photosynthesis by energizing chlorophyll molecules and also create double bonds of certain molecules within your eyes, enabling human sight.

3. Dry areas such as New Mexico and Arizona have wider air-temperature fluctuations from night to day because the air is less dense and hold less water vapor causing less greenhouse gas and less absorption of heat rather than the trapping of infrared radiation which occurs in humid areas such as in Florida, where the humidity and dense atmosphere holds on to the heat and causes less fluctuation from day to night.

4. a) Daytime temperatures would be much colder because the air would be less dense and would not expand and have as much energy as when it is heated, infrared heat would not be reradiated as much and the earth's surface would be cooler.
b) Nights would also be cooler; however, even cooler than the daytime because in the day visible light and UV radiation could warm you up but without the sun it would get very cold in a less dense atmosphere.

4SBS #14-20 pg 361

14. CO2 will block infrared light out and also keep the correct amount of UV and visible light entering the earth and if this balance is disrupted more heat will build up and reflect back creating a raised temperature.

15. a) The decay of plant life and animals will increase CO2 levels as well as cutting down trees and automobile emission
b) CH4 levels will increase when more cows emit methane and also more plants decay, methane is also emitted in fires.

16. a) Increased amounts of CO2 as well as more methane will cause an increase in temperature
b) An increase in ozone and less solar energy let into earth would decrease the temperature of the earth.

17. On a sunny winter day, a greenhouse with transparent glass walls is much warmer than is a structure with opaque wooden walls because the glass allows the visible and UV light to enter the greenhouse but the glass does not allow the reradiated infrared radiation leave the greenhouse, raising the temperature.

18. a)

b) http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/earthguide/diagrams/greenhouse/

19. Limestone, Fossil fuels, and Plant decay

20. A carbon atom that was in a decayed fish came into the ocean water, the water was used in the soil of a plant and the carbon that makes up the plant can be released when it decays then fossilized and gets pumped from an oil rig and used as petroleum gas in a car which then gets emitted into the atmosphere.

4SBS #1-8 p360

1. Electromagnetic radiation is equal to energy; therefore, more electromagnetic radiation means more energy.

2. Spectrum is a good descriptor of the types of energy found in electromagnetic radiation because they can change and decrease and increase often.

3. Visible radiation can energize electrons in some chemical bonds such as chlorophyll molecules of plants inorder to feed them.

4. a) Radio waves, microwaves, infrared, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays.
b) Radio waves, microwaves, and x-rays mostly improve life for humans while infrared and UV-C and UV-B rays can harm humans greatly.

5. UV light can break down certain chemical bonds of impurities and can sterilize these tools whereas visible light can only be absorbed and on occasion energize electrons.

6. Infrared is not absorbed at all, rather it is trapped within the atmosphere, visible radiation is mostly absorbed and easily too, UV is absorbed as well however more easily with UV-B instead of A or C.

7. Solar radiation warms the earth's surface and also provides the energy needed for the Hydrological Cycle to occur.

8. a) help
b) help

THE ACIDS: Striking it Rich Lab

Questions:

1.
a.Compare the color of the three coins- untreated(the control), heated in the zinc chloride solution only, and heated in the zinc chloride solution and then on a hot plate.
b. Do the treated coins appear to be composed of metals other than copper? If so, explain.

a. The untreated control coin is copper-colored and shiny, while the coin heated in the zinc chloride solution only has silver blotches. The coin heated after being in the zinc chloride solution is now gold where the silver blotches were.
b. Because the coins formed alloys that resembled different forms of brass, we know the coins are also made of zinc.

2. If someone claimed that a precious metal was produced in this investigation, how would you decide whether the claim was correct?

Due to the law of conservation of matter, matter is neither created or destroyed. A coin composed of copper and zinc could not react to produce a prescious metal, but simply combine to form an alloy, brass.

3. Identify at least two practical uses for metallic changes similar to those you observed in this investigation.

Alloys like brass, bronze, and steel are stronger than the elements that compose them. These alloys are widely used for every day items.

4.
a. What happened to the copper atoms originally present in the treated pennies? Provide evidence to support your conclusion.
b. Do you think the treated pennies could be converted back to ordinary coins? If so, what procedures would you use to accomplish this?

a. The silver coin that had been treated with only the gently bubbling zinc chloride solution formed a less-combined alloy of copper and zinc, brass, than the gold coin that had been treated with the gently bubbling zinc solution and the hot plate. The atoms of copper and zinc combined in different proportions with each procedure.
b. We don’t believe the treated pennies could be converted back to ordinary coins, at least not in our classroom.

2SDS #7-13 p.204

7. An alloy is a solid combination of atoms of two or more metals.

8. Brass and 14-carat gold.

9. Both iron and carbon.

10. Brass, which is a combination of Copper and Zinc: Zn + Cu--->ZnCu

11. They are in family or group 114 and 15.

12. Phosphorus, arsenic, and aluminum.

13. Semi-conductors are mostly used in technology devices such as transistors and intergrated circuits within computers and various electronics.

Facing the truth: The shape of your face betrays how aggressive you are—if you are a man

We have always been told to avoid "judging a book by its cover"; however, recent studies prove appearance might be a reliable place to judge by. Some women have claimed that they can judge a man's aggression and trustworthiness from his face and although some people discourage such a thought, Justin Carré and Cheryl McCormick, of Brock University have decided to test this theory. In men, it should be possible to judge their predisposition to aggression. Supposedly the ratio between the width of a person’s face and his height should say something about their aggressiveness. They proposed this ratio because there is such a variety between that of women's and men's. The difference is because during the stages of puberty, hormones reshape the body and testosterone (which men posses) creates a wider face shape and aggressiveness. Inorder to test this theory McCormick and Carré took photos of Canadian hockey teams. Hockey is a famously rough sport, with loose rules, and plenty of agression. They studied the men's facial widths in relationship to their heights as well as how it corresponded to their penalty records. McCormick and Carré found that in fact the wider the face, the more penalties! Because hockey is mostly a men's game, testing women had to be done separately. For females, McCormick and Carré turned to a group of several dozen undergraduates. Both sexes played a game against a computer to test their aggravation and a huge variety of aggression was recorded. They did not find a correlation between female facial structure and aggression. Men may actually have the advantage above women with aggression. An agressive man should barely even get to fighting if his face shows it all; however, these tests have yet to be run.

http://www.economist.com/node/11959198

2SDS #1-6 p204

1. Allotropes are different forms of an element that each have distinctly different physical or chemical properties.

2. Oxygen, Silicon

3. a) They have the different colors and carbon structure.
b) Their properties are different because although they both possess carbon, they are allotropes.
c) The structure, abundance, color, melting point, and reactiveness account for the difference in cost of each of these items.

4. Engineered materials have been made in a lab and created by scientists for the benefit of our community whereas natural materials are found in nature and have been created naturally on earth.

5. Engineered ceramics in high-temperature applications is sadly extremely brittle and quite often fracture when exposed to dramatic temperature changes. On the other hand, they are durable and have low chemical reactivity.

6. Plastic is a very versatile substance and can be altered to display relatively soft and pliable properties and can also be crafted to be hard and brittle, almost like glass.

2SCS #18-21 p182

18. a) Reusing an item would be taking the same item and using it more than once for the same task whereas recycling is when an item is put into a different shape or form to be used as a different item entirely though made of the same substance.
b) Reusable: water bottle, lunch boxes Recycle: newspaper, cans

19. a) Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Soil, Water
b) Petroleum, Gold, Silver, Wood

20. a) reusing
b) recycling
c) reusing

21. Both newspaper and lightbulbs can be recycled, but lightbulbs cannot be reused for different purpose whereas lightbulb have to go to a manufacturing factory to be economically helpful.

2SCS #13-17 p164

13. a) If you had three times more then you would have to multiply all of the coefficients by 3 as well inorder for it to be balanced.
b) You have to multiply N2 on the product side by 5 for the Nitrogen to be balanced and you would have 10 nitrogens on the product side.
c) You would have to make Pb on the other side 5 aswell to make the Pbs balanced at a 1:1 ratio.

14. a) 1 mole of N2
b) 621 grams of Pb
c) 14 grams of N2
d) 446 grams of PbO

15. The percent concentration is 73% and not 64% because there are two oxygen atoms which has a molar mass of 32 and it is over 44 because you have to put it over the total.

16. a) 87% Silver Ag
b) 53% Aluminum Al
c) 67% Calcium Ca

17. a) 68% Lead Pb
b) 10% PbSO4
c) HELP
d) See Drawing

2SCS #1-12 p180

1. The law of conservation of matter is in a chemical equation matter can neither be created nor destroyed.

2. A scientific law summarizes what has been learned by careful observation of nature.

3. You can never use up or throw away any matter at all according to the law of conservation of matter.

4. a) Reactants: Sn-1 H-1 F-1 Products: Sn-1 H-2 F-2 =unbalanced
b) Reactants: Si-1 O-2 C-1 Products: Si-1 O-1 C-2 =unbalanced
c) Reactants: Al-1 O-3 H-6 Cl-3 Products: Al-1 O-3 H-6 Cl-3 =balanced

5. a) 3
b) 2
c) 1

6. See Drawings
a) 1WO3+3H2----> 1W+3H2O
b) 2PbS+3O2----> 2PbO+2SO2
c)4Fe+3O2----> 2Fe2O3

7. a)1-3-2-3
b) 2-25-16-18

8. a) Na-2 S-1 O-4 K-2 Cl-1-------Na-2 S-1 O-4 K-2 Cl-1
NO
b) No, she added and took away subscripts from the original equation which cannot be done.
c) 1Na2SO4+2KCl---->2NaCl+1K2SO4

9. ??????????????????????????????

10. a) 32 grams
b) 48 grams
c) 100 grams
d) 58 grams
e) 180 grams

11. Moles are a representation of atoms which is a quantity and does not vary from element to element.

12. a) 6.02 x 1023 atoms
b) 3.01 x 1023 atoms
c) .1 atoms
d) ??????

Calcium

Calcium has been used by human kind for years unknowingly, before the actual discovery of calcium singularly. Used within the limestone (calcium chloride) statues, marble monuments, and mortar (cement-like material), calcium is and has always been a huge part of human life. Humphry Davy, an english chemist, known for his contributions to the scientific world of electrochemistry, discovered calcium along side potassium, sodium, magnesium, strontium, and barium. In 1808, after inventing a method of electrolysis, Davy was able to isolate all of these elements, but most importantly calcium!

Calcium is possibly one of the most well known elements and also remains essential to human and animal life. Designated in group two of the periodic table, this Alkaline Earth Metal, is found abundantly within the Earth's crust. It is even the fifth most abundant element on earth, estimated at 3.64%.

In a neutral state, calcium has 20 protons 20 electrons and 20 neutrons. This adds up to an 40 gram atomic weight per mole. Calcium can readily become an ion of +2. This means calcium will lose two electrons to form a positive ion. Calcium is also a fairly soft metal with a luster, but becomes dull when it reacts with oxygen because a coating of grey calcium oxide will form.

In nature, calcium will be found in an ore combined with another substance to form a mineral because it is quite reactive. It readily reacts with oxygen to form calcium oxide and also reacts with the halogens; fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. Chlorine can also react with cold water, acids, and nonmetals. Because chlorine is so reactive, it will always be found as some form of a compound. It occurs in aragonite, calcite, chalk, limestone, marble, and travertine, and in oyster shells and coral.

To extract calcium a process called electrometallurgy can be used. In this process, an electrical current flows through molten calcium chloride and pure calcium is the product; however, there is not a big demand for pure calcium.

Calcium is fairly light with a density of 1.54 grams per cubic centimeter, which makes it more resistant to electricity. The relative melting point of calcium is 850°C and the boiling point is 1,440°C. As you can see these numbers are extremely high and make calcium a hard substance to find in a gaseous or liquid state.

Attaining the combustion of calcium is even more difficult than magnesium; however, once attained, calcium will give off an orange-red hue.

Calcium can be an be found as calcium-40, calcium-42, calcium-43, calcium-44, calcium-46, and calcium-48. Both calcium-45 and calcium-47 are radioactive isotopes, meaning they have been made radioactive to help with research and medecine. Calcium-45 has been used to examine the process calcium will naturally take in soil or fertilizer. It has also been used in glassy materials, detergents, and water purification systems to trace impurities that cannot be seen with the human eye so they send out a radioactive signal to indicate to the detectors in systems there is a problem. Calcium-47 along with calcium-45 can be used to study how calcium is used in the human body. When doctors believe a body is not regulating nerve messages or building bone incorrectly they will inject this isotope of calcium to be followed and traced. Calcium isotopes help doctors and many other people make new discoveries about the human body and nature as well.

Calcium cannot be purchased by the public alone because it is too reactive to even be transferred by any means without at the least oxidation occurring. The average calcium supplement can range anywhere from 10 dollars to 50 dollars depending on the level of calcium and the form of the supplement.

A main location to designate the production or mining of calcium is very hard to find considering calcium is so abundant and is commonly found in cow's milk, ocean, rock, and other natural sources easy to come by. I could not find a specific country or general area where calcium is known to come from.

___________________
Uses for Calcium:
-as a metal
1. Getter- used to retrieve unwanted chemicals from a system by sending out signals or actually removing the unwanted substance. Used in items such as copper, steel, and electric light bulbs
2. Used as an alloy. For example cerium, which is what is used in flints (create the spark) of a lighter

-as a compound
1. Limestone-used for building, statues,art, naturally found
2. Cement and mortars for building in construction
3. Production of cheese, influence the reactivity of rennin in bringing about the coaggulation of milk
4. Calcium hydroxide solution (Ca(OH)2) (also known as limewater) is used to detect the presence of carbon dioxide by being bubbled through a solution. It turns cloudy where CO2 is present.
5. Calcium arsenate (Ca3(AsO4)2) is used in insecticides.
6. Calcium carbide (CaC2) is used to make acetylene gas (for use in acetylene torches for welding) and in the manufacturing of plastics.
7. Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is used in ice removal and dust control on dirt roads, in conditioner for concrete, as an additive in canned tomatoes, and to provide body for automobile tires.
8. Calcium cyclamate (Ca(C6H11NHSO3)2) was used as a sweetening agent but is no longer permitted for use because of suspected cancer-causing properties.
9. Calcium gluconate (Ca(C6H11O7)2) is used as a food additive and in vitamin pills.
10. Calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2) is used as a swimming pool disinfectant, as a bleaching agent, as an ingredient in deodorant, and in algaecide and fungicide.
11. Calcium permanganate (Ca(MnO4)2) is used in liquid rocket propellant, textile production, as a water sterilizing agent and in dental procedures.
12. Calcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2) is used as a supplement for animal feed, fertilizer, in commercial production for dough and yeast products, in the manufacture of glass, and in dental products.
13. Calcium phosphide (Ca3P2) is used in fireworks, rodenticide, torpedoes and flares.
14. Calcium stearate (Ca(C18H35O2)2) is used in the manufacture of wax crayons, cements, certain kinds of plastics and cosmetics, as a food additive, in the production of water resistant materials and in the production of paints.
15. Calcium sulfate (CaSO4·2H2O) is used as common blackboard chalk, as well as, in its hemihydrate form better known as Plaster of Paris.
16. Calcium tungstate (CaWO4) is used in luminous paints, fluorescent lights and in X-ray studies.
17. Hydroxylapatite (Ca5(PO4)3(OH), but is usually written Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) makes up seventy percent of bone. Also carbonated-calcium deficient hydroxylapatite is the main mineral of which dental enamel and dentin are comprised.

More you should know...
We all have heard of calcium before and most of us link calcium to strong bones, strong teeth, and dairy products. The truth of the matter is our bodies need calcium to survive. Hydroxyapatite is the substance found in milk which provides calcium to make our bones and teeth strong, hard, and resilient. Furthermore, calcium does not only supply for our bones and teeth. The right amount of calcium keeps your heart rate normal and your muscles as well as nerves functioning correctly at all times. Adequate amounts of calcium can be attained by consuming the following foods; milk and other dairy products; green, leafy vegetables; seafood; nuts; and dried beans, orange juice, breakfast cereals, breads, and other fortified food products. Some forms of calcium deficiency can lead to osteoporosis, weakening of the bones, and depleted calcium stores in bones while another, called Hypocalcemia, can cause renal failure without treatment and must be carefully watched. Calcium has recently even been found to contain anti-carcinogenic vitamin D supplements, meaning calcium may contain cancer preventing characteristics and is now being researched vigorously. You probably don't think of calcium as precious metal because it is not hard to come by and is rather commonly used; however, the variety of uses and calcium's importance to human life may make us realize that calcium is in fact extremely precious.

Works Cited:
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/elements/A-C/Calcium.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium#History
http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/calcium/

2SBS #9-22

9. Active metals can easily react with another substance and combine making them commonly hard to separate and must be processed by electrometallurgy and pyrometallurgy.

10. Silver would be the easiest to process, and right behind silver would be copper and zinc; however, magnesium would be very difficult to process. Silver and copper and zinc would be easiest to process they are the least reactive metals out of the 4 we were given and would not easily combine with other ions.

11. Most metals exist in nature as minerals rather than as pure metallic elements because the majority of metals are quite reactive and can combine easily to become minerals.

12. a) Calcium with Chromium is more likely to react because Calcium has a higher reactivity than Chromium does, and will therefore cause a reaction unlike the reverse which would cause no reaction because less reactive metals cannot react with more reactive ions.

13. b) 2Ag+(aq) + Zn(s)----> 2Ag(s) +Zn2+(aq) - this reaction is more likely to occur because ZInc is more reactive than silver; therefore, the ion must be the silver, which is less reactive. Once the reaction occurs the oxidation and reduction of Zinc and Silver occur readily.

14. a) Lead nitrate is less reactive than iron metal (spoon) so when the spoon touched the lead a reaction would definitely occur. b) Pb2+(aq) + Fe(s)----> Pb(s) + Fe2+(aq)

15. Oxidation is the loss of electrons to become an ion while reduction is the gaining of electrons to neutralize into a metal.

16. a) Au+(aq) + 1e- ----> Au(s)
b) V(s) + 4e+ ----> V4+(aq)
c) Cu+ + 1e+ ----> Cu2+

17. a) Reduction
b) Oxidation
c) Reduction

18. a) Zinc has been oxidized because it has gone from being a solid metal to losing two electrons in order to become a solution of Zn2+
b) Nickel has been reduced because it has gone from being a solution with an ionic positive charge of 2 and gained two electrons to become a solid of Nickel metal.
c) The reducing agent in this reaction is Zinc.

19. a) Potassium has been oxidized because it has gone from 2 atoms of metal Potassium to 2 atoms of positively charged ionic solution of potassium
b) Mercury has been reduced in this equation because it has gone from being a positively charged ion to a solid neutral metal.
c) The oxidizing agent is the Mercury because it allows the Potassium to change from a metal to an ion by making it lose two ions.

20. a) Al + Cr3+ ----> Al3+ + Cr
b) Mn2+ + Mg ----> Mn + Mg2+

21. a) Electrometallurgy is a process by which electrical current is used to supply electrons to metal ions, thus reducing them.
b) Pyrometallurgy is a method where metals and their ores are treated with heat in a blast furnace where Carbon and Carbon monoxide are common reducing agents. They provide electrons.
c) Hydrometallurgy is treating ores and other metal-containing materials with reactants ina water solution.

22. a) Electrometallurgy
b) No process is needed, usually found uncombined in a pure metal form.

Relative Reactivities of Metals Lab

Questions: #1-8, page 143:

1. Which metal reacted with the most solutions?

Although both magnesium and zinc showed reactions with copper nitrate and silver nitrate, magnesium’s reaction with copper nitrate was more apparent than zinc’s.

2. Which metal reacted with the fewest solutions?

Copper reacted with the fewest solutions.

3. Assuming that you did not test silver metal, with which solutions (if any) would you expect silver metal to react? Explain your answer, citing evidence from your data and observations.

Although we didn’t test silver due to its high price, going into the experiment we were aware that silver is a very unreactive metal (the reason why it is used in jewelry). Silver would not have reacted with any of the solutions.

4. List the metals (including silver) in order, placing the most reactive metal first (the one reacting with the most solutions) and the least reactive metal last (the one reacting with the fewest solutions).

Magnesium, zinc, copper, silver.

5. Refer to your “metal activity series” list from Question 4. Write a brief explanation of why the outside surface of a penny is made of copper instead of zinc.

Although silver is the least reactive, less than copper, it is too expensive to use on the outside of a penny. Since copper is also an unreactive metal, it is used on the outside of pennies since it will not corrode over time or melt under standard temperatures due to its high melting point.

6. A) Which of the four metals mentioned in this investigation might be an even better choice than copper for the outside surface of a penny? What observational evidence supports your conclusion?

Silver. Silver is the least reactive out of all of the metals.

B) Why do you think that the particular metal that you identified in Question 6a is not used as the outside surface of a penny?

As previously stated, silver is way too expensive to use to make pennies.

7. Given your new knowledge about the relative chemical activities of these four metals,
A) which metal is most likely to be found in an uncombined, or “free,” (metallic) state in nature?

Silver and copper is most likely to be found in an uncombined, or “free” metallic state in nature because they are the least reactive and seldom combine with other substances. This is why copper is used on the surface of pennies and silver (and gold) are used to make jewelry.

B) which metal is least likely to be found chemically uncombined with other elements?

Since magnesium was the most reactive out of the four metals we tested, it is least likely to be found chemically uncombined with other substances in nature. Magnesium combines with other substances very easily due to its high reactivity.

8. Reconsider your experimental design for this investigation:
A) Would it have been possible to eliminate one or more of the metal-solution combinations and still obtain all the information needed to create chemical activity ratings for the four metals?

Yes, it would have been possible to eliminate two of the metal solution combinations and still obtain all of the information needed to create chemical activity ratings for the four metals.

B) If so, which combination or combinations could have been eliminated? Why?

Due to silver’s high price, we eliminated it from our experiment. Since we knew that silver is an unreactive metal, removing it from the test was not a problem. Since we know that zinc is a reactive metal, the reason it is used as the core and not the surface of the penny, we could have removed it from our experiment as well.

2SAS #26-34 and 2SBS #1-8

26. Metallic substances are more likely to lose electrons because they tend to be more reactive and be positive ions.

27. They are chemically inert.

28. a) cation b) cation c) anion d) cation e) anion f) cation g) anion h) anion

29. a) Copper metal and copper ions. I chose this option because the other option compares two substances that chemically contain different things while copper metal is just a certain copper ion that still has the same chemical make up without changing any thing about the substance other than the amount of electrons which frequently fluctuates.

30. 156+254/2= 205 picometers

31. a)oxidation, food coloring
b) reaction between lithium and water, boiling manually by heat source
c) reaction of HCl to Copper causing gas bubbles, H2o at its boiling point becoming a gas

32. a) Bromine b) Silicon

33. The Data is similar because along with temperature or reaction to an acid the amount of metals will go up so the reactiveness is similar as well as the way we constructed the data for the fish kill was by mass of metals and pH while Mendeleev also used atomic mass. He also had to make assumptions just like our class did.

34.

vs.

_________________________________________________________

1. Atmosphere- Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon Hydrosphere- Sulfer, Calcium, Magnesium Lithosphere- Magnesium, Iron, Aluminum

2. Crust, Mantle, and Core.

3. a) Mexico b) Japan c) China

4. China

5. Ores are naturally occurring rocks or mineral that can be mined and from which it is profitable to extract a metal, whereas minerals are the most important continents of the mixture of components found in the ores.

6. Quantity, percent of metal, type of mining and process needed for extraction, distance between mine and metal-refining facilities, supply and demand, environmental impact.

7. The value of gold because it is so unreactive and hardly gets ruined and the possibility of new gold forming because of nutrients being revitalized.

8. Useful Ore refers to the minerals in the ore.

The Difference Engine: Hold the carcinogens

http://www.economist.com/blogs/babbage/2011/07/healthy-eating

With grilling being so popular among the American population, awareness of the dangers posed by carcinogens in meats has become a pertinent subject. Since 1970, we have known leaving beef, pork, fowl, and fish cooking at high temperatures causes heterocyclic amines (HCAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). These forms of cancer can be produced at a relatively low temperature of 3000F, when our grills can reach up to 7000F, or more, within minutes. At such high temperatures, meat becomes burnt, and unhealthy for consumption quickly. HCA’s are formed when amino acids and sugars react at a high temperature to create an energy boost that later may become cancerous. One of the cancer causing boosts is called harmane and causes shaking of the arms, head, jaw, and voice and can be found in 20 times more people than Parkinson’s disease. PAH’s, on the other hand, can be found when fuels such as oil, coal, tar, and wood are burned. They are even usually removed from vehicle exhaust because they are so harmful. In food, they are found when the fat and juices from the meat drip onto the red hot coals or splash plates, causing a flame to form. When this flame makes contact with the meat, the PHA’s in the flame go onto the meat. After eating the meat, HCA’s and PAH’s alter the DNA in body cells, increasing susceptibility to cancer. When experimenting with rodents, scientists found those that were fed with HCA and PAH in their food developed tumors; however, the amount of HCA and PAH the rodents were given was disproportional to the amount the average human can consume. But even without the rodent information, people who ate medium to well-done beef were 3 times more likely to suffer from stomach cancer than those who prefer rare or medium-rare beef. Also men who consumed 3 grams of well-done meat had a 40% higher chance of getting prostate cancer. Even though World Cancer Research Fund and the American Institute for Cancer Research issued a release in 2007 asking people to cut down on red meats and smoked food in general, they failed to mention PAH’s or HCA’s and the later damage caused by cancer. The statement these institutes made did not make the American population completely aware of the cancerous high risks and really should have. Some helpful tips for avoiding consumption of HCA’s and PAH’s to the best of our ability is eating protein packed food such as tofu and marinating meats for at least 6 hours before grilling would decrease levels of HCA’s and PAH’s dramatically as well as only using the ends of grills which remain at 2200F. We need to be more careful with our lives even at the cost of our appetites.

The Acids: Converting Copper Lab

Notes: Procedure:
• Copper powder before the heating is a fine brick-red powder substance
• After the two minutes being on the hot plate, the substance was charcoal and stiff with a slightly purple hue
• Then it was removed from the hot plate and broken up as much as possible with a spatula into a not as fine powder
- Then we placed the crucible back on the hot plate for 10 more minutes with the top ajar to let some oxygen in
• Every two minutes we removed the crucible from the hot plate and broke up the solid with a spatula as previously done
• After the first 2 minutes, it remained a powdery substance with more solid particles
- Instead of having a purplish hue it had a charcoal color
• After the next two minutes the substance remained the same
• After the next two minutes the substance remained the same
• Then we removed the crucible from the hot plate, placed it on the base of the ring-stand, and allowed its contents to cool to room temperature

Questions: Page 140:
1. Answers
a. Describe changes you observed as you heated the copper.
i. We observed color change and the formation of solid particles within the heated crucible. In the first stages of heating, the copper became charcoal in color with a slightly purple hue, and by the end of the heating cycle, the copper was completely charcoal in color.
b. Did the copper atoms remain in the crucible? Explain, using evidence from your observations.
i. Yes the copper did remain inside the crucible but there were slight powder stains on the sides of the crucible that changed color along with the rest of the powder.
2. Answers
a. Were the changes you observed physical changes or chemical changes?
i. As we observed, the copper oxidized; therefore, the changes were chemical changes.
b. What observational evidence leads you to that conclusion?
i. It is a chemical reaction because burning, or combustion, involves chemical reactions between the copper and the oxygen.
3. Answers
a. How did the mass of the crucible contents change after you heated the copper?
i. The mass of the contents did not change at all, they were exactly the same before and after heating
b. Explain why the mass of the crucible contents change in that manner.
i. Although we recognized that the mass of the crucible content should have increased after oxidization, it remained the same. This may be due to crushing the powder too fine, or because of not enough copper particles oxidizing.

Aggregated Data:

Average gain: 0.06g
Median gain: 0.06g

2SAS #13-25

13. a) periods b) group or family

14. Sodium-Na and Potassium-K

15. a) the far right column b) they are very unreactive c) they are chemically inert

16. a) MgF2 b) GaP3

17. about 68 degrees celsius

18. Higher

19.

20. a) protons-4 , neutrons-5 , electrons-4 b) protons-7, neutrons-7, electrons-7 c) protons-10, neutrons-10, electrons-10

21. The student is incorrect because a +2 ion indicates the loss of 2 electrons making the atom positively charged.

22. a) Carbon-12, Carbon-13, Calcium-41, Platinum-195, Uranium-238
b) Carbon

23. No it is not, we would also need the atom's ionic charge, melting point, boiling point, state of being (gas, liquid, solid), and the element's proton and neutron count.

24. An electron's mass is so much smaller than a proton and neutron it is not included in the atomic weight because it is so minuscule.

25.

2SAS #1-12 pg. 130

1. a) physical property b) chemical property c) chemical property d) physical property

2. a) physical property b) physical property c) physical property d) chemical property

3. a) chemical property b) chemical property c) chemical property d) physical property

4. a) chemical property b) chemical property c) chemical property d) chemical property

5. a) A cut apple left out in the air turns brown because of the exposure to oxygen which creates a chemical reaction, displaying a chemical property b) Flashlight batteries lose their "charge" after extended use because they can no longer be used to facilitate use and have created a chemical property c) Dry cleaning removes oils from clothing because it is a nonpolar substance combining with oil a nonpolar substance creating a chemical reaction and making it a chemical property d) Italian salad dressing separates over time because it is a suspension and is not homogeneously mixed so chemically will separate displaying another chemical property

6. a) When making chocolate chip cookies one must get all the ingredients, mix them together to form a dough, let them set in the refrigerator, put them on a baking sheet, put them in the oven, let them cool.
b) Mixing the ingredients is a chemical change because it is creating a reaction with all the ingredients to form a new substance; the dough. Letting the dough set in the refrigerator is physical property because the dough become firmer. Putting them in a shape on the baking sheet is a physical property because the dough stays the same in a different shape. Baking them in the oven is a chemical property because the substance didn't change but it cooked because the heat allowed the cookies to get harder.

7. a) metal b) nonmetal c) nonmetal d) metal

8. a) metal b) metalloid c) nonmetal d) metal

9. Boron- B, Silicon-Si

10. a) Because Iodine is a nonmetal, it should shatter into pieces and be brittle b) Zirconium would bend and be maleable because it is a metal c) phosphorus would shatter and be brittle because it is a nonmetal d) nickel would bend and be maleable because it is a metal

11. Nonmetals are non electrically conductive and they also shatter easily into small pieces and cannot bend to fit around small areas and into smaller wires.

12. Metals are good for coins because faces such as Abraham Lincoln's on the penny can be printed on to them easily because they bend, metals also can last a long time, and they also are cost effective while still being good quality.